Toxic Relationships Essay Example For Students

Toxic Relationships Essay Toxic relationships- â€Å"She says ‘jump’, he asks ‘how high? ’. † In 1997 Berkeley sociologist challenged the Freudian theory of masculinity development with the death of mothers, for a century western psychology, have urged men to reject their mothers in order to achieve manhood. Sigmund Freud the father of psychoanalysis insisted that the disassociation from the mother as a necessary step in the development of masculine identity. And for the first time, in a one of a kind anthology a sociologist from the university of California at Berkeley brought together a series of memoirs that call this well worn theory into question, titled ‘Our mothers ‘spirits: On the death of mothers and the grief of men†, the book brought together 42 writers to explore the bond between mothers and sons. The essay includes writings by many well known male writers. We will write a custom essay on Toxic Relationships specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The purpose of this book was to expose the extent to which psychological and spiritual health in men, more so in later years of life, depending upon their ability to retrieve the love and close bonds the experienced and felt with their mother. Berkeley professor who has been teaching a course on men and masculinity in 1976, making him pretty much the go to man , in terms of ‘men’s life and masculinity’, he insists , â€Å" men don’t have to psychologically separate from the mother to be masculine. Everyone must leave home and become their own person, but you don’t have to overreact and reject the mother†. A negative stereotype that has made way into our vocabulary is the term ‘mama’s boy’, this term not only targets men who maintain a close relationship with his mother but also men with dominant to slightly dominant feminine personalities. The theme that runs throughout the anthology is that the rejection of mothers is isolated to the Caucasian population, Asian and African descent men maintain close bonds but grow up to be effective men in the world. The men in the book spoke of yearning for a spiritual reunion with their mothers. What happens to men on the other side? The men who are overly dependent and cannot seem to find a balance? How does he manage his relationship with his wife and mother at the same time? The angst one man can go through to find the equilibrium affect many marital relationships. On asking a very close friend whose marriage fell apart due to this toxic dependency, responded â€Å"are you talking about mothers that say â€Å"jump† , and sons who ask â€Å"how high ? , asking her to go back and recollect how the dissolution of her marriage she states â€Å"well its was always creepy when it’s just two of you in your new home and then every time the phone rings , he takes the phone to the other room, shuts the door and talks to her for 20 minutes and this is after talking like 20 times a day.. Makes you feel like he is cheating on you. it’s actually kinda like what a guy would do to hi de a secret affair, perverse as it may sound! † Being in relationship for four years before they were married she says, â€Å" there were hints that his behavior would get worse. Such as even though his mother owned and drove a car for many years, she would make him leave from their time together to go buy groceries for herself. He left all his career decisions up to his mother, and would listen to every unreasonable demand, even to the point of not holding my hand, because his mother told him so! † Being in relationships that affect your mental well being and puts that much stress on your own peace of mind, is a toxic relationship. .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2 , .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2 .postImageUrl , .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2 , .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2:hover , .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2:visited , .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2:active { border:0!important; } .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2:active , .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2 .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uaef759583973eff2237fe33c937527a2:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Korean war Analysis EssayWhen alarm bells ring , and you are looking for way to get out , when you are sad and depressed for more days than when you are normal, run for the hills. But as it is with most things , it is easier said than done. Persis recalls, she almost called the wedding off, and she should have when his mother made him drive her around at the peak of the wedding preparations for inane and unimportant work. † She was always threatened by me , and my family. At the wedding day itself his mother ran up to everyone asking how she looked and seeking attention, pretty much making a ridicule of herself. This behavior strained the relationship to breaking poi nt. anyone else would have said enough and walked away. To make the relationship have a semblance of functionality, she was committed to holding on and fought to make it work. Persis says â€Å"Her jealousy finally blew me away when; he called of our valentine’s day plans to drop his mother off at a party. † The death of that relationship was inevitable. The fights , the screaming and the absolute isolation even when you are with someone asks for nothing but a clean cut if possible. P. Madhavan who is in the process of gaining her double masters in counseling psychology says â€Å"communication is the key to a successful marriage, I can tell someone in an abusive relationship to talk to her husband about what she is feeling, but will it work ? That depends from one relationship to the other; there is only so much that you can do to fix a relationship, there is nothing you can do to fix ‘someone’. † A psycho therapist and counselor in Muscat Mrs. A. Mali gives us insight into why this unhealthy relationship develops, â€Å" Men who are fixated on their mothers, in some cases have a distressing childhood history, are raised by single mothers or   have parents with unhealthy/immature nurturing styles. To a great extent, the mother is responsible for fostering an emotionally codependent relationship with her son. † As a practicing counselor she gives the person who suffers the most, a few words of wisdom â€Å"the woman involved with a Mamas boy feels secondary, unimportant or even cheated. Working on any relationship conflicts takes patience and persistence. She can start with clearly and repeatedly expressing her discomfort with the situation. What can help is defining her own boundaries and set ground rules for the relationship with her man. † To get in touch with Mrs. A. Mali , mail her at shrink. [emailprotected] com Personally I think there are ways to rectify relationships like Mrs. A. Mali has advised, but sometimes the only thing to do, is come to terms with reality and walk away. There is no shame in putting yourself first, it takes a great deal of strength and pride to love yourself and do what’s best for you.

Types of Bankruptcy

Types of Bankruptcy Introduction Bankruptcy refers to a federal court process in which repayment arrangements are made to allow an insolvent debtor to clear the outstanding debts. Bankruptcy is often declared when a company or an individual is so deep into debt that starting afresh is the only reasonable option. This paper compares and contrasts the five types of bankruptcy proceedings.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Types of Bankruptcy specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Different Types of Bankruptcy The first type of bankruptcy is referred to as liquidation. It can be accessed by individuals, matrimonial couples or business partners. The group or individual seeking to apply for this bankruptcy proceeding must first attend an interview conducted by an agent of a credit counseling agency. The agent is obliged to appear in court during the bankruptcy proceedings. Unlike the other types of bankruptcy, the applicant is delegated a trustee wh o is expected to oversee the selection of assets that are to be excluded from the bankruptcy. Apart from the assets selected for exemption, the remaining assets are to be sold, and the proceeds used to settle the outstanding debts. The second type of bankruptcy involves municipalities that want to adjust their debts. It is contained in chapter nine of the United States bankruptcy code. This type of bankruptcy is different from the rest because it only is suited for municipalities. Municipalities in this respect include towns, cities, school districts, and counties. The third type of bankruptcy applies to business corporations and is referred to as reorganization. Unlike in liquidation where a trustee is allocated, this type of bankruptcy allows the corporation to design its own restoration plans. These plans for reformation can comprise measures that try to restore the productivity of the company, consolidate debt and begin repayment. Unlike liquidation, the reorganization type of b ankruptcy does not seek to purge all arrears immediately. On the contrary, a suitable payment plan is formulated to enable the business to keep all or most of its essential assets while paying its debts. The strategy for reorganization is ultimately ratified or dismissed by the court. The fourth type of bankruptcy involves fishermen and family farmers who have access to regular sources of income. Unlike liquidation, the applicant does not lose any of his assets.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The applicant is instead allowed to repay his debts out of his prospective earnings. A debt repayment plan is designed in a format that the applicant can observe. This bankruptcy is similar to the fifth type of bankruptcy since the debtor is allowed to design a plan for repayment in both cases. It is similar to liquidation with respect to the concept that a trustee is allocat ed to oversee the repayment. The fifth type of bankruptcy covers individuals who are not necessarily fishermen or farmers, but who must have regular sources of income. It resembles the previous type of bankruptcy since both types deal with people who have regular sources of income. However, unlike the previous, this type of bankruptcy is not restricted to specific professions. Like in liquidation, a credit counselor must be consulted. However, in this case, the work of the counselor is to establish the applicant’s ability to restructure his own debt payment plan. The fifth type of bankruptcy compares with the fourth and third since they all allow the applicants to retain their assets. Unlike liquidation, the insolvents do not acquire instantaneous absolution from debts. Conclusion There are five different types of bankruptcy outlined in the United States bankruptcy code. These types of bankruptcy apply to different individuals and companies and vary according to income, profe ssion and level of debt. It is advisable that each individual or organization examines the different bankruptcy types before settling on one.

Eastern European Politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5250 words

Eastern European Politics - Essay Example At a certain point in these transformations, the communist parties gave up their monopoly of power -- often removing a constitutional clause on that subject and admitting rival parties -- and submitted to competitive elections, which turned over power to their opposition. There were significant differences, for example, with regard to the abruptness or completeness of the change among the elites, ranging from the purge of the old elites in the former German Democratic Republic (GDR) to the sliding-scale, power-sharing arrangements in many other postcommunist societies (Robert, 1985). As in Southern Europe and Latin America, the ruptura with the old regime transferred authority only with certain de facto limitations to the new elites. Whereas in the former areas, the army and both private and foreign big business often continued to wield powerful influence, in Eastern Europe it was more often the bureaucracy and large, state-owned firms and farms. In Russia, the entire military-industrial complex at first survived the meltdown of communist control. The new governments began to make inroads into the realms of state-owned and cooperative enterprises whose managers had somehow inherited command from the defunct state planning commissions at the center of their command economies. In many cases, this left the economy half in and half out of the range of authority of the new democratic governments (David, & Bruszt, 1998). There is no need to go into the complexities of the transfer in each country, except to stress the paramount role of particular elites -- political or nonpolitical -- along with the rebellious masses in the unraveling of the old and the consolidation of the new regimes. The masses effectively challenged the authority of even the last hard-line dictatorship. "We are the people" was the chant of the East German demonstrators in Leipzig and elsewhere as they confronted the claims of popular legitimation of their communist government (Samuel, 1991). Were the economic crises of the old regime or its dictatorial character at the roots of rebellion Most immediately, the latter, although the multiple failures of the communist economy played a significant role under the surface. Crucial to the final collapse of the old regimes were also the defeat of the repressive apparatus at home -- especially the secret police and other repressive forces such as the workers' combat groups in large factories -- and the end of the outside military threat, both of Soviet power to reformist regimes like that of Alexander Dubcek and of the Western military counterpressure that had for so long been the alibi of Soviet pressure on the satellites. Once Mikhail Gorbachev had renounced the Brezhnev doctrine of Warsaw Pact intervention against nonconforming communist regimes and, in fact, encouraged them to follow in his path of glasnost and perestroika, hard-liners in Czechoslovakia and East Germany were on their own, with predictable results (Joseph E., 1 994). The complex requirements of a working democratic system, of course, did not automatically fall into the laps of the aspiring peoples of Eastern Europe when communism fell. Far from it, each element had to be acquired separately, and, as of this moment, some are still missing, incomplete, or in

Balanced Score Card Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Balanced Score Card - Essay Example "The aspects that the scorecard contains should be quantifiable or measurable. This is because it would be difficult to interpret something that cannot be measured in the first place." (Metrics, Scorecard, KPI's Measure Tools 2008). It could be seen that although financial parameters are seen as measuring tool of performance, there are now other aspects also which are equally critical in terms of customers, employee satisfactions, innovative methods, quality, quantum of sales, etc. The fundamental truth behind the Balance Score Card is to ensure that " that no single measure can provide a clear performance target or focus attention on all the critical areas of business, they proposed the concept of a Balanced Scorecard as a more sophisticated approach for meeting these shortcomings." (Pienaar & Penzhorn, 2000, pp.202-209). Just as financial ineptitudes could bring down a company, in the present context it is seen that even fall in sales, loss of goodwill, quality issues, etc could spell disaster for the company. at cannot be measured in the first place.

Asian American Stereotypes Essay Example for Free

Asian American Stereotypes Essay Pertaining to Tracy Lais article titled, Asian American Women, Lai discusses how stereotypes dehumanize people while turning them into objects to be manipulated. Lai touches on the topic of how Asian people and cultures are stereotyped as being inferior and exotic. The problem that Lai brings to our attention is that it is a struggle to be an Asian in America due to the fact that Asians have been denied political, economic and social equality in America. Lai also brings to our attention the die hard myth that Asians have made it in America, which is far from the truth. I sense that Lais argument is extremely effective due to the fact that stereotypes are not only seen among Asians, they are also seen in many other cultures and genders. For instance, women for years were battling for womans equality to be able to vote, and today women are still battling for equality in political and economic areas. In addition, African Americans are still trying to be accepted into certain political roles throughout our society. Since Tracy Lai is a Asian in America I feel that her argument holds great validity due to the fact that Lai shared her own personal experiences. By reading Lais personal feelings, it allowed me to understand her beliefs to a greater extent because I was able to see where she was coming from. Certainly I agree with Lais views because I have noticed that Asians are depicted as being inferior. For example, if you have ever seen a movie or a television show that had an Asian character, nine times out of ten the Asian character is depicted as being mathematicians, naive, and speaks with broken English. I have also noticed that there are very few Asian politicians, as well as very few women politicians, within our culture. I do not know if this problem stems from Asian Americans not having a historical/authoritative figure like Dr. Martin Luther King representing African Americans, and Susan B. Anthony representing womans rights to vote. However, I do know that Asians do not receive the same types of opportunities as others because they have been stereotyped for so long as being inferior. In addition, I feel that the reason why Asians may be seen as inferior individuals is because they were one of the last cultures to start a movement for equality that was inspired by other ethnic cultures. Because of this somewhat late movement, our culture has not been able to adapt to this change, like our culture has not adapted to women being paid the same as men. Lai brought to my attention that Asians are claimed to value education more than other minorities and Asians are said to have special intellectual affinities for math and science. Lai proceeded to raise the point that this is a racist rationale because this is implying that other cultures are not able to succeed in this type of area. For instance, I can relate to this statement because African Americans are said to be dominate in athletics, and they are also believed to have a higher vertical leap than others. I was offended when I heard this because I received a scholarship to Sacramento State for high jumping, and I am not African American. This example just goes to show you that stereotypes do dehumanize people and turns them into something they are not. In retrospect, Asians and other cultures are being denied political, economic, and social equality which is not equitable to these people. I feel that by reading Lais article has made me realize that stereotyping has no boundaries, because it is occurring in many different cultures and it is effecting many different people.

World War I and World War II :: Comparative

World War I and World II are basically the same, right? Well, one can also say they have nothing in common. The comparison of the two wars is conceivable, but it is thought-provoking because they are such widespread notions. This concept applies to Araby, written by James Joyce during WWI, and The Flash, written by Italo Calvino during WWII. In Araby, the protagonist falls in love with a girl, but love deceives him. In his moment of epiphany, â€Å"[g]azing up into the darkness [he] saw [himself] as a creature driven and derided by vanity; and [his] eyes burned with anguish and anger† (Joyce 1). In The Flash, the protagonist suddenly grasps a reality and in his moment of epiphany â€Å"[he] stopped, blinked: [He] understood nothing. Nothing, nothing about anything. [He] didn’t understand the reasons for things or for people, it was all senseless, absurd† (Calvino 1). Comparing the epiphanies of the two distinct short stories reveals a relationship betwee n their similarities and differences through theme, symbolism and setting. First and foremost, comparing the themes of both epiphanies reveal they can simultaneously be similar and different. An important common theme in both epiphanies is facing reality. In Araby, the protagonist realizes â€Å"[his] stay was useless† (Joyce 6) since the young lady only â€Å"spok[e] to [him] out of a sense of duty† (Joyce 6). Likewise, in The Flash, the protagonist realizes he â€Å"accepted everything: traffic lights, cars, posters, uniforms, monuments, things completely detached from any sense of the world, accepted them as if there some necessity, some chain of cause and effect that bound them together† (Calvino 1). Both characters face the reality and randomness of the world. Even so, each epiphany implies each protagonist faces a different sort of reality. The protagonist of Araby faces the reality of love and â€Å"[sees himself] as a creature driven and derived by vanity† (Joyce 6). On the other hand, the protagonist of The Fla sh faces the reality of existence and hopes â€Å"[he] shall grasp that other knowledge† (Calvino 2). Therefore, reviewing the theme similar to both epiphanies leads to discovering different themes as well. Conversely, looking at the differences in the symbolism of each epiphany hints at a comparable aspect of symbolism. The epiphany of Araby symbolizes the protagonist escaping into a dark world when he enters â€Å"[t]he upper part of the hall [which] was now completely dark† (Joyce 6).

Psychology and Impact Personality Development

1. Define personality. 2. Analyze how biological, situational and mental processes impact personality development. 3. Discuss social and cultural contributions to personality development. 4. Describe the major dispositional theories of personality. 5. Describe the major process theories of personality. 6. Evaluate the major personality theories. 7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of commonly used personality assessment techniques, validity, reliability. Define personality. Personality Is a unique and relatively stable ways in which people think, feel and behave * Is shaped by biological, situational, and mental processes in a sociocultural and development context * Impacts people’s cognition, motivation and behaviour Analyze how biological, situational and mental processes impact personality development. Biological * A person’s temperament results from 4 humours (ancient theory) * Blood from heart – sanguine cheerful * Choler from liver- choleric angry * Mel ancholer from spleen – melancholy depressed * Phlegm from brain- phlegmatic sluggish Frontal lobes regulates one’s basic disposition * Individual differences in temperament arise from balance of neurotransmitters * Adrenal gland, thyroid gland, pituitary gland and endocrine gland affect personality. * Kagan’s research on inherited basis of shyness on new borns * Excitable and inhibited infants became shy and introverted * Less excitable and bold infants became extraverted * â€Å"push of nature in different directions† Situational * Environment affects us through operant and classical conditioning * (1) Physical Environment It includes the influence of climatic conditions of a particular area or country on man and his living. * (2) Social Environment * The child has his birth in the society. He learns and lives there. Hence, the social environment has an important say in the personality development of the child. * E. g. one would play with an outgoing chi ld more than an inhibited one pushes inhibited child towards shyness * (3) Family Environment * Child comes in contact with his parents and other family member. His likes, dislikes, stereotypes about people, expectancies of security and emotional responses all are shaped in early childhood. The type of training and early childhood experiences play an important role in the development of personality. * Besides this, economic factors i. e. , economic condition of the family and the type of relations between the parents also influence the personality of the child. * (4) Cultural Environment * Individualism in westerners vs collectivism in Africa caused by environment * Striking difference in the universal trait of shyness caused by how each culture dealt with the child’s success and failures. Who gets credit for good grades, gets blamed for not getting them? Childcautious, low risk taker * (5) School Environment * In the school, the teacher substitutes the parents. * The school poses new problems to be solved, new taboos to be accepted into the superego and new models for imitation and identification Mental Processes * 3 kinds of process theories: * Psychodynamic/ psychoanalysis- * motivation, especially unconscious motives and the influence of past experiences on out mental health * Humanistic- consciousness and our present, subjective reality: what we think is ipt now and how we think of ourselves in relation to others * Cognitive- * Influence of learning, perception and social interaction on behaviour Describe the major dispositional theories of personality. Dispositional theories suggest temperaments, traits or types (set of personality characteristics) provide consistency to individual’s personality over time. Temperament * Biologically based personality dispositions * Apparent in early childhood, Establish foundation of personality & individual’s approach to life * Inherited temperament may set the range of your response to some life si tuation but it does not fully determine your life experiences * Affected also by family position, experiences, and sense of self * Usually refers to dominant long standing themes eg shyness/moodiness * Role of frontal lobes in regulating one’s basic disposition * Individual differences in temperament arise from balance of neurotransmitters * Influenced by learning * Heredity and environment interact with initially inherited characteristics becoming amplified * E. . one would play with an outgoing child more than an inhibited one pushes inhibited child towards shyness * E. g. observational learning Traits * Emerge from temperaments and influenced by experiences * Guides thoughts and actions under various conditions * Relatively stable * BIG 5 Traits * Openness to experience, Conscientious, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism * Has validity across cultures (but most of these studies utilized university students as respondents who are more influenced by European-American vi ews * Quite accurate Labels a person but gives no explanation on why Evaluation of Trait Theories XPortrayed personality as fixed and static rather than a process that can undergo development changes depending on experiences Xoversimplified our complex nature XDo not tell much about their source or how traits interacts X SELF-FULFILLING prophecy where ppl become influenced by the labels and it became hard for them to change the undesirable behaviour. E. g. a child labelled shy will have to struggle w both the label and the traits * Gives us ability to predict behaviour Assessing traits * Using: * MMPI-2 for clinical traits base on mental problems * Not possible to fake due to lie scales * Must be used w care in non-Western countries/ minorities cos not well represented in the samples used in developing the test * NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI) base on big 5 * Both have excellent reliability (consistent and stable scores) * Both have good validity (measure what they were designed to measure eg signs of mental disturbance) * Barnum effects: tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate * descriptions can well apply to others * reliability and validity are important attributes of good psychological tests * Finding personality type * Category that represents a common cluster of personality characteristics * MBTI – Myers-Briggs Type Indicator * Not reliable, not valid * Ppl don’t fall into different types but more along the introversion-extraversion continuum Describe the major process theories of personality.While each of the process theories sees different forces at work in personality, all portray personality as a result of internal mental processes and social interactions. Psychodynamic theories 1. Sigmund Freud psychodynamic approach * focus is on influence of unconscious forces (psychic determinism) difficult to prove * Personality is a function of 3 main themes: unconscious forces, childhood experiences, sex * Not scientific, hindsight bias ( overemphasis on childhood ), unconscious mind is not that malign and turbulent * Structure of personality Id * Unconscious reservoir * contains basic motives, drives and instinctive desires * pushes for immediate gratification * Ego * Governed by reality principle * Decision making component * Mediator btw Id and reality * Superego * Governed by morality and social standards (conscience) * An individual’s view of the kind of person he or she should strive to become * Psychosexual stages * Ego defence mechanism- largely unconscious mental strategy employed to reduce the experience of conflict or anxiety * Denial – I don’t have a problem Rationalization- I cheat because everyone does it – give socially accepted reasons for actions one think is socially unacceptable * Reaction formulation – goodie goodie act in opposite of their desire- act exactly in opposition to their unconscious desires * Displacement- kick the dog- shifting your reaction from real source of distress to a safer individual or object * Regression- cry, throw things to reduce stress- regress to earlier developmental stage * Sublimation- channel negative to positive eg sexual desires to creativity on art * Projection- attribute own unconscious desires/fears to others * Led to projective testing 2. Adler Struggle with sexual and hostile impulses not primary factor in personality development * Primary struggle: overcome inferiority feelings, develop superiority feelings in social relationships (later seen as unhealthy due to overcompensation) * Outgrow childhood inferiority, become competent adult * All born with positive motive, social interest * People’s lives governed by their goals 3. Karen Horney * Freud overemphasized sexual conflicts, penis envy, and criticized his views of women * When basic anxiety gets out of control, people become neurotic (basic desires taken to extreme eg nee d for a partner) * Ways people deal with basic anxiety: * Move towards others, against others, away from others 4. Other Neo-Freudian Theorists: * Accepted notions of psychic determinism and unconscious motivation * Did not agree on sex and death instinct or the indelible nature of early life experiences. Put greater emphasis on ego functions (ego defence,dev of self instead of on unconsciousness) * Gave social variables an impt role (culture, family instead of instinctive urges, unconscious conflicts) * Extended personality development to include lifespan (instead of only childhood) Projective testing: Diagnosis via a defense mechanism * Ambiguous pictures to probe people’s innermost feelings, motive, conflicts, and desires * E. g. Rorschach Inkblot Technique- not objective * E. g. Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)- ambiguous picture n tell story * Theme: aggression, sexual needs, rs Humanistic Perspective Main Theoretical tenants: 1) Humans have an innate drive for personal g rowth ) Humans have free will; not controlled by the environment 3) Humans are conscious and rational; not controlled by unconscious forces 4) One’s subjective view is more important than objective reality * Abraham Maslow ‘s needs hierarchy * Interested in healthy human psychology * Criticisms: Not testable, Unrealistic, Method, Culture-specific * Carl Rogers’ Person-Centred Theory * Believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-actualize * To achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence. * Difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence. Where a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, a state of congruence exists. * The larger the discrepancies between the two, the more psychological problems one experiences * Development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive regard. * As we prefer to see ourselves i n ways that are consistent with our self-image, we may use defence mechanisms like denial or repression in order to feel less threatened by some of what we consider to be our undesirable feelings. * Evaluation: * Self centered picture of personality, looking through the lens of individualistic culture * But even in collectivism, self exists * Self-esteem, a cause or effect? Bullies and drug users actually have high self esteem * Emphasis on positive achievements and pro-social behaviours * Fails to recognize its function in a world filled with evil of all kinds Social Cognitive theories: Social Learning * Cognitive learning which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour * Expectation of gaining reward drives us to acquire that response * We reject or accept the role model base on consequences of their actions * Reciprocal determinism is the process which cognitions, behaviour and the environment mutually influence each other * Jane likes vb (cognition), spends more time playing on campus (env) and interacting w teammates (social behaviour) rewardingthis activity will reciprocally strengthen your interest in vb. Locus of control Rotter’s theory: our behaviour depends on our locus of control * Changes from situation to situation * Internal locus of control * Good student, smart and have good grades internal in academic settings * External locus of control * Overweight and come from a family w obesity external in restaurants. Evaluation * Overemphasize rational information processing and overlook both emotion and unconscious processes * Strength lies in foundation of solid psychological research able to come up with treatments for mental disorders that often seem to involve observational learning esp anxiety- based disorders (phobias and behaviour disorders in children) Behavioural Operant and Classical conditioning ) In classical, the organism learns an association between two stimuli (the N S and UCS); in operant, the organism learns an association between the behaviour and its consequences 2) In classical, the behaviour is elicited by the stimulus (not voluntary, like a reflex); in operant, the behaviour is emitted (under the control of the organism) * Pavlov’s classical conditioning * Chrissy’s sleepover case * B. F Skinner’s Operant conditioning * Positive reinforcement & Negative reinforcement (remove negative stimuli) strengthens response, * Punishment (give unpleasant stimuli) weakens response * Behaviour is determined by situations one is in (situationism) * People behave in ways to suit their situations Behaviours cannot be consistent enough to be traits because situations change * Solution: behaviours influenced by both person and situation (person X situation interactionism) * One situation influences people in different ways Theories to understand ourselves 1. Implicit personality theories a. Assumptions about personality used to simplif y the task of understanding others, eg. Blondes are not smart b. May give bad predictions when one project his feelings onto others and assume he’s feeling the same way c. Mindset 2. Self-narratives d. Help ppl sense a thread of consistency through their personalities over time e. Redemptive self: where one overcome obstacles to help others 3. Both theories are influenced by culture Psychology and Impact Personality Development 1. Define personality. 2. Analyze how biological, situational and mental processes impact personality development. 3. Discuss social and cultural contributions to personality development. 4. Describe the major dispositional theories of personality. 5. Describe the major process theories of personality. 6. Evaluate the major personality theories. 7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of commonly used personality assessment techniques, validity, reliability. Define personality. Personality Is a unique and relatively stable ways in which people think, feel and behave * Is shaped by biological, situational, and mental processes in a sociocultural and development context * Impacts people’s cognition, motivation and behaviour Analyze how biological, situational and mental processes impact personality development. Biological * A person’s temperament results from 4 humours (ancient theory) * Blood from heart – sanguine cheerful * Choler from liver- choleric angry * Mel ancholer from spleen – melancholy depressed * Phlegm from brain- phlegmatic sluggish Frontal lobes regulates one’s basic disposition * Individual differences in temperament arise from balance of neurotransmitters * Adrenal gland, thyroid gland, pituitary gland and endocrine gland affect personality. * Kagan’s research on inherited basis of shyness on new borns * Excitable and inhibited infants became shy and introverted * Less excitable and bold infants became extraverted * â€Å"push of nature in different directions† Situational * Environment affects us through operant and classical conditioning * (1) Physical Environment It includes the influence of climatic conditions of a particular area or country on man and his living. * (2) Social Environment * The child has his birth in the society. He learns and lives there. Hence, the social environment has an important say in the personality development of the child. * E. g. one would play with an outgoing chi ld more than an inhibited one pushes inhibited child towards shyness * (3) Family Environment * Child comes in contact with his parents and other family member. His likes, dislikes, stereotypes about people, expectancies of security and emotional responses all are shaped in early childhood. The type of training and early childhood experiences play an important role in the development of personality. * Besides this, economic factors i. e. , economic condition of the family and the type of relations between the parents also influence the personality of the child. * (4) Cultural Environment * Individualism in westerners vs collectivism in Africa caused by environment * Striking difference in the universal trait of shyness caused by how each culture dealt with the child’s success and failures. Who gets credit for good grades, gets blamed for not getting them? Childcautious, low risk taker * (5) School Environment * In the school, the teacher substitutes the parents. * The school poses new problems to be solved, new taboos to be accepted into the superego and new models for imitation and identification Mental Processes * 3 kinds of process theories: * Psychodynamic/ psychoanalysis- * motivation, especially unconscious motives and the influence of past experiences on out mental health * Humanistic- consciousness and our present, subjective reality: what we think is ipt now and how we think of ourselves in relation to others * Cognitive- * Influence of learning, perception and social interaction on behaviour Describe the major dispositional theories of personality. Dispositional theories suggest temperaments, traits or types (set of personality characteristics) provide consistency to individual’s personality over time. Temperament * Biologically based personality dispositions * Apparent in early childhood, Establish foundation of personality & individual’s approach to life * Inherited temperament may set the range of your response to some life si tuation but it does not fully determine your life experiences * Affected also by family position, experiences, and sense of self * Usually refers to dominant long standing themes eg shyness/moodiness * Role of frontal lobes in regulating one’s basic disposition * Individual differences in temperament arise from balance of neurotransmitters * Influenced by learning * Heredity and environment interact with initially inherited characteristics becoming amplified * E. . one would play with an outgoing child more than an inhibited one pushes inhibited child towards shyness * E. g. observational learning Traits * Emerge from temperaments and influenced by experiences * Guides thoughts and actions under various conditions * Relatively stable * BIG 5 Traits * Openness to experience, Conscientious, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism * Has validity across cultures (but most of these studies utilized university students as respondents who are more influenced by European-American vi ews * Quite accurate Labels a person but gives no explanation on why Evaluation of Trait Theories XPortrayed personality as fixed and static rather than a process that can undergo development changes depending on experiences Xoversimplified our complex nature XDo not tell much about their source or how traits interacts X SELF-FULFILLING prophecy where ppl become influenced by the labels and it became hard for them to change the undesirable behaviour. E. g. a child labelled shy will have to struggle w both the label and the traits * Gives us ability to predict behaviour Assessing traits * Using: * MMPI-2 for clinical traits base on mental problems * Not possible to fake due to lie scales * Must be used w care in non-Western countries/ minorities cos not well represented in the samples used in developing the test * NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI) base on big 5 * Both have excellent reliability (consistent and stable scores) * Both have good validity (measure what they were designed to measure eg signs of mental disturbance) * Barnum effects: tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate * descriptions can well apply to others * reliability and validity are important attributes of good psychological tests * Finding personality type * Category that represents a common cluster of personality characteristics * MBTI – Myers-Briggs Type Indicator * Not reliable, not valid * Ppl don’t fall into different types but more along the introversion-extraversion continuum Describe the major process theories of personality.While each of the process theories sees different forces at work in personality, all portray personality as a result of internal mental processes and social interactions. Psychodynamic theories 1. Sigmund Freud psychodynamic approach * focus is on influence of unconscious forces (psychic determinism) difficult to prove * Personality is a function of 3 main themes: unconscious forces, childhood experiences, sex * Not scientific, hindsight bias ( overemphasis on childhood ), unconscious mind is not that malign and turbulent * Structure of personality Id * Unconscious reservoir * contains basic motives, drives and instinctive desires * pushes for immediate gratification * Ego * Governed by reality principle * Decision making component * Mediator btw Id and reality * Superego * Governed by morality and social standards (conscience) * An individual’s view of the kind of person he or she should strive to become * Psychosexual stages * Ego defence mechanism- largely unconscious mental strategy employed to reduce the experience of conflict or anxiety * Denial – I don’t have a problem Rationalization- I cheat because everyone does it – give socially accepted reasons for actions one think is socially unacceptable * Reaction formulation – goodie goodie act in opposite of their desire- act exactly in opposition to their unconscious desires * Displacement- kick the dog- shifting your reaction from real source of distress to a safer individual or object * Regression- cry, throw things to reduce stress- regress to earlier developmental stage * Sublimation- channel negative to positive eg sexual desires to creativity on art * Projection- attribute own unconscious desires/fears to others * Led to projective testing 2. Adler Struggle with sexual and hostile impulses not primary factor in personality development * Primary struggle: overcome inferiority feelings, develop superiority feelings in social relationships (later seen as unhealthy due to overcompensation) * Outgrow childhood inferiority, become competent adult * All born with positive motive, social interest * People’s lives governed by their goals 3. Karen Horney * Freud overemphasized sexual conflicts, penis envy, and criticized his views of women * When basic anxiety gets out of control, people become neurotic (basic desires taken to extreme eg nee d for a partner) * Ways people deal with basic anxiety: * Move towards others, against others, away from others 4. Other Neo-Freudian Theorists: * Accepted notions of psychic determinism and unconscious motivation * Did not agree on sex and death instinct or the indelible nature of early life experiences. Put greater emphasis on ego functions (ego defence,dev of self instead of on unconsciousness) * Gave social variables an impt role (culture, family instead of instinctive urges, unconscious conflicts) * Extended personality development to include lifespan (instead of only childhood) Projective testing: Diagnosis via a defense mechanism * Ambiguous pictures to probe people’s innermost feelings, motive, conflicts, and desires * E. g. Rorschach Inkblot Technique- not objective * E. g. Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)- ambiguous picture n tell story * Theme: aggression, sexual needs, rs Humanistic Perspective Main Theoretical tenants: 1) Humans have an innate drive for personal g rowth ) Humans have free will; not controlled by the environment 3) Humans are conscious and rational; not controlled by unconscious forces 4) One’s subjective view is more important than objective reality * Abraham Maslow ‘s needs hierarchy * Interested in healthy human psychology * Criticisms: Not testable, Unrealistic, Method, Culture-specific * Carl Rogers’ Person-Centred Theory * Believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-actualize * To achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence. * Difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence. Where a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, a state of congruence exists. * The larger the discrepancies between the two, the more psychological problems one experiences * Development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive regard. * As we prefer to see ourselves i n ways that are consistent with our self-image, we may use defence mechanisms like denial or repression in order to feel less threatened by some of what we consider to be our undesirable feelings. * Evaluation: * Self centered picture of personality, looking through the lens of individualistic culture * But even in collectivism, self exists * Self-esteem, a cause or effect? Bullies and drug users actually have high self esteem * Emphasis on positive achievements and pro-social behaviours * Fails to recognize its function in a world filled with evil of all kinds Social Cognitive theories: Social Learning * Cognitive learning which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour * Expectation of gaining reward drives us to acquire that response * We reject or accept the role model base on consequences of their actions * Reciprocal determinism is the process which cognitions, behaviour and the environment mutually influence each other * Jane likes vb (cognition), spends more time playing on campus (env) and interacting w teammates (social behaviour) rewardingthis activity will reciprocally strengthen your interest in vb. Locus of control Rotter’s theory: our behaviour depends on our locus of control * Changes from situation to situation * Internal locus of control * Good student, smart and have good grades internal in academic settings * External locus of control * Overweight and come from a family w obesity external in restaurants. Evaluation * Overemphasize rational information processing and overlook both emotion and unconscious processes * Strength lies in foundation of solid psychological research able to come up with treatments for mental disorders that often seem to involve observational learning esp anxiety- based disorders (phobias and behaviour disorders in children) Behavioural Operant and Classical conditioning ) In classical, the organism learns an association between two stimuli (the N S and UCS); in operant, the organism learns an association between the behaviour and its consequences 2) In classical, the behaviour is elicited by the stimulus (not voluntary, like a reflex); in operant, the behaviour is emitted (under the control of the organism) * Pavlov’s classical conditioning * Chrissy’s sleepover case * B. F Skinner’s Operant conditioning * Positive reinforcement & Negative reinforcement (remove negative stimuli) strengthens response, * Punishment (give unpleasant stimuli) weakens response * Behaviour is determined by situations one is in (situationism) * People behave in ways to suit their situations Behaviours cannot be consistent enough to be traits because situations change * Solution: behaviours influenced by both person and situation (person X situation interactionism) * One situation influences people in different ways Theories to understand ourselves 1. Implicit personality theories a. Assumptions about personality used to simplif y the task of understanding others, eg. Blondes are not smart b. May give bad predictions when one project his feelings onto others and assume he’s feeling the same way c. Mindset 2. Self-narratives d. Help ppl sense a thread of consistency through their personalities over time e. Redemptive self: where one overcome obstacles to help others 3. Both theories are influenced by culture